1. Electrostatics

Introduction to Electromagnetic Theory and Quantum Mechanics The course covers electromagnetic theory, optics as part of electromagnetism, and quantum mechanics. Unlike classical physics focusing on forces acting on objects' trajectories, quantum mechanics challenges these notions by questioning the concept of trajectory itself. It applies primarily to microscopic entities like atoms or molecules but not macroscopic systems.

Newton's Laws: Defining Mass and Force Measurement Newton’s equation F = ma is fundamental for defining mass using a standard kilogram block via spring experiments. Forces are calculated based on observed accelerations; examples include gravitational force (mg) near Earth's surface or universal gravitation varying with distance (1/r²). The law also predicts motion when forces are known.

Electrostatic Force Demonstration: A New Fundamental Interaction A comb lifting paper after being rubbed demonstrates electrostatic force—a new interaction distinct from gravity yet immensely stronger at 10^40 times its magnitude under specific conditions. This experiment highlights how electric interactions can overcome Earth’s entire gravitational pull momentarily despite appearing weak initially.

'Charge Interactions': Attraction vs Repulsion Experiments Historical experiments revealed that rubbing materials like glass or rubber creates charges causing attraction/repulsion between objects depending upon their nature—like-charged repel while opposites attract consistently across setups involving rods/spheres suspended in nylon threads showcasing charge transfer phenomena during contact/separation processes effectively explaining behavior patterns scientifically validated repeatedly over centuries globally accepted universally applicable principles governing charged particle dynamics comprehensively understood today foundationally significant discoveries revolutionizing modern science profoundly impacting technological advancements worldwide significantly enhancing human understanding exponentially expanding possibilities infinitely beyond imagination previously inconceivable realms unexplored potentials limitless opportunities awaiting exploration future generations inspiring 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Coulomb's Law explains how charged entities interact, defining charge as a property measured in coulombs. The law states that two charges exert forces on each other proportional to their magnitudes (q1 and q2), inversely related to the square of their distance apart (r²). This force is calculated using a constant value, 9 × 10⁹ N·m²/C². Charges can be positive or negative; like charges repel while opposite ones attract. Forces are vector quantities with direction determined by unit vectors along r.

Conservation of Electrical Charge Electrical charge is conserved, meaning its total amount remains constant over time. In any process, such as chemical reactions or particle collisions in accelerators, the sum of charges before and after remains equal. However, this conservation must be local; a charge cannot disappear from one location and reappear elsewhere instantaneously due to relativity principles. Non-local conservation would violate simultaneity across different frames of reference.

Quantization of Electric Charge Electric charge exists only in discrete quantities rather than continuous values. All observed charges are multiples (positive or negative) of a fundamental unit: 1.6 × 10^-19 coulombs.

Granular Nature of Charge and Atomic Structure Charge is not continuous but granular, composed of discrete particles like protons and electrons. Atoms consist of a nucleus with protons (positive charge) and neutrons (neutral), surrounded by orbiting electrons (negative charge). Protons, neutrons, and electrons are the stable building blocks for all matter in daily life. Remarkably, every electron or proton across the universe has identical properties such as mass and charge.

Mysteries Surrounding Identical Charges Electrons have negative charges while protons carry positive ones; their magnitudes are equal despite being distinct particles with different masses. This symmetry ensures electrical neutrality in atoms but remains an unresolved mystery within classical mechanics—though Quantum Field Theory offers some explanations. The uniformity among these subatomic particles allows consistent predictions about atomic behavior universally.

Quantization of Charge Through Electron Transfer Charges transfer via movement of electrons since they can be displaced more easily than tightly bound protons within nuclei. Rubbing materials causes one to lose or gain electrons leading to opposite charges on objects involved due to this quantized nature where only whole units exist—not fractions—of elementary charges participate in interactions governed by Coulomb's Law.

Superposition and Coulomb's Law Coulomb's Law describes the force between two point charges, but when multiple charges are present, superposition is applied. This principle assumes that forces from individual pairs of charges can be added vectorially to determine the net force on a charge. While not logically required or universally accurate at extreme precision levels, it serves as an excellent experimental approximation for most practical scenarios.

Polarization in Neutral Objects Neutral objects like paper can exhibit polarization when brought near charged bodies such as combs. The negative charges within the neutral object migrate closer to positive external charges while leaving positive ones further away, creating attraction stronger than repulsion due to separation of charge centers. Materials vary in their ability to polarize; conductors allow free movement of electric charge whereas insulators do not.

Conductors vs Insulators: Charge Flow Behavior Electricity flows through materials called conductors (e.g., metals) but cannot flow through insulators (e.g., wood). Conductivity determines whether electrical shocks occur during contact with live circuits—standing on insulating surfaces prevents current flow into grounded paths via human body conductivity.

'Testing Coulomb’s Force Dependence' Experimentation Methods. 'To verify 1/r² dependence experimentally,' varying distances between charged particles reveals how forces change proportionally by observing acceleration or spring expansion effects under controlled setups without needing precise knowledge about absolute values for q₁/q₂ magnitudes initially involved.'