The Non-Marxist Origins of Lenin (History of Socialism in Russia)

Vladimir Ilich Ulyanov, also known as Lenin, was a revolutionary communist and self-proclaimed Marxist. However, there is scholarly debate about whether he truly adhered to Marx's theories or if he significantly revised them. Critics charge that Lenin's views were contradictory to Marx's or revisionist in nature.

Marxist theory emphasizes the connection between material conditions, modes of production, and societal institutions. It asserts that economic foundations shape ideology, politics, and culture. The evolution of modes of production leads to class contradictions resolved by new economic systems. This progression from feudalism to capitalism is expected to culminate in communism through a social revolution led by the proletariat.

In the 19th century, Russia was an absolute monarchy facing increasing unsustainability. The Napoleonic Wars and the Decemberists Revolt highlighted Russia's conservative stance against liberal reform. After a humiliating defeat in the Crimean War, it became clear that Russia needed to adapt.

The Emancipation of 1861 marked the end of serfdom in Russia, freeing tens of millions from being tied to land owned by landlords. This reform was driven by the embarrassment caused by serfdom and slavery, as well as the need for modernization and industrial development. However, peasants were still economically and culturally tied to their former masters after emancipation.

The ubiquitous mir in Russia influenced the concept of democratic centralism coined by Lenin. The tradition of unanimous decision-making in agrarian societies led to a system where debate and voting were allowed initially, but once a decision was made, everyone had to fall in line. This reflected the association of democracy with unanimous decisions and collective will.

Russian intellectuals, disillusioned with civil service, turned to serving the exploited peasants. They set up ethnographic museums and left college campuses to join the 'Going to the People' movement.

Nikolai Chernyshevsky's novel 'What Is to Be Done?' inspired the neurodnics and offered a blueprint for a utopian society. It portrayed a strong-willed hero dedicated to revolution, celebrated violence in the name of progress, but also showed condescension toward the masses.

The concept of false consciousness explains how the peasantry in Russia was conditioned to believe they loved the Czar like a human God, rationalized by dominant ideology. This is similar to how ideological justifications were used in the Antebellum South for slavery. The Russian socialists aimed to change this belief through outreach and education.

Living in a repressive police state led to the rise of terrorism as middle-class individuals rejected cooperation with the state and resorted to extreme measures for the good of the people. The People's Will, a terrorist organization, emerged seeking vengeance on Czar Lazar and aiming to destabilize the government for revolution.

Lenin's Early Life and Influence of His Brother Lenin's early life was not marked by revolutionary tendencies, as he initially showed no interest in politics. However, the arrest and execution of his older brother Alexander for plotting to kill the Tsar had a profound impact on Lenin. He sought to emulate his brother and delved into reading extensively about revolutionary socialism from non-Marxist sources like Chernyshevsky's 'What Is To Be Done.' Despite later claims that he rebuked terrorism and embraced Marxism early on, evidence suggests otherwise.

Lenin's Introduction to Revolutionary Socialism Despite Soviet mythology portraying Lenin as always being revolution-bound and Marxist-oriented, historical evidence contradicts this narrative. It is revealed that Lenin did not become acquainted with Marx until later in 1889 when he started reading 'Capital.' His initial involvement with revolutionary groups led him towards Narodnaya Volya rather than Marx circles or terrorist organizations. Even Lennon himself indicated that his revolutionary participation began around 1892-93 in Samara.

Lenin initially associated with non-Marxist revolutionaries and terrorists, each with their theories of revolution. The Decemberists envisioned a transitional totalitarian state, while later generations emphasized social justice and blind faith in the inevitability of revolution. Some believed that the majority was not ready for revolution and argued for continued education until forming a majority to prevent dictatorship. Others advocated elite-led revolutions using professional conspirators to destroy opposition, leading to jacobinism - radical restructuring around a revolutionary dictatorship through terror.

Pyotr Tkachev, a writer who influenced Lenin, advocated for the formation of a highly disciplined and dedicated conspiracy to seize power through terror and create a revolutionary dictatorship. He believed that the masses could not initiate revolution on their own due to the influence of the ruling class. His ideas were similar to Lenin's and he recommended them to the Bolsheviks while in exile.

Marx's Capital arrived in Russia in 1872, initially underestimated and misunderstood. It revealed the horrors of capitalism to some, while offering a solution for others by shifting focus to the industrial working class.

Lenin's Marxism was influenced by Russian traditions, splitting into two camps. He adopted the need for a disciplined revolutionary vanguard, belief in altering history through actions, and seizing the state apparatus to institute social revolution from non-Marxist tradition. Lenin added conspiratorial politics based on Russia's revolutionary tradition and transferred his focus from peasantry to proletariat.

Plekhanov initially rejected democratic ideas but later softened under Marxist influence. He proposed a two-stage Revolution for Russia, emphasizing cooperation between workers and bourgeoisie against the autocracy.

Lenin criticized economism, which focused solely on economic improvements to the detriment of the political movement. Edward Bernstein's revisionist strategy suggested working with capitalism instead of overthrowing it, causing a divide among socialists. Lenin saw these as urgent problems that required centralization and discipline within the Marxist movement.

Lenin broke with the Democrats and their ideas of democracy, denouncing revisionist views and proposing a new spiritual leadership.

Lenin's argument closely resembles Tkachev's, leading to criticism and accusations of being a 'blockchainist.' Lenin initially defended Jacobism but later disassociated the Bolsheviks from it. Unlike Marx, who believed in winning democracy through revolution, Tkachev sought to convert the state into a revolutionary State ruled by a Vanguard minority over the non-revolutionary majority.

Lenin's concept of the intellectual vanguard sparked controversy, as he suggested that only intellectuals could introduce socialist consciousness to the proletariat. This led to a schism within the party, with Lenin advocating for a centralized and conspiratorial party of professional revolutionaries. His opponents accused him of acting like a dictator and eroding democratic elements in favor of centralized dictatorship.

Lenin's beliefs shifted towards Marx after the outbreak of the Great War, as he became disillusioned by Orthodox Marxists voting in favor of the war. He delved into philosophical texts and read 'Capital' in 1915, leading to a self-deprecating realization.

On the eve of the 1917 revolution, Lenin seemed to have rediscovered Marx and realized that his previous understanding of the dictatorship of the proletariat was off base. He wrote that the task of Revolution was not to reappropriate the state but to smash it.

In 1917, Lenin returned to find workers spontaneously revolting in the February Revolution. This caught him by surprise as he had dismissed such spontaneity earlier. He initially believed it incomprehensible that the masses could make a genuine revolution without elite guidance.

The Bolsheviks' October Revolution contradicted Marx's theory of revolution in industrialized countries. Lenin revised Marx's theory, emphasizing the impact of imperialism on economically backward nations and advocating for global proletarian unity.

Lenin, while calling himself a Marxist, incorporated elements from the Russian revolutionary tradition. He followed his brother and the People's Will, preferring conspiratorial organization and acts of terror. His path to politics was not solely based on Marxism but also drew from Jacobin organizations.